By Air Commodore (R) Jamal Hussain
About 31 to 33 satellites are placed in medium earth orbit in space. The system does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world.
The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The United States government, however, has retained the option of selectively denying access or degrading the system at any time, as it did to the Indian military in the 1999 Kargil conflict.
As a result, several nations have developed or are in the process of developing their own global or regional satellite navigation systems. GPS receivers operating beyond 18Kms above AMSL or designed or modified for use with unmanned vehicles or ICBMs require an export licence from the US State Department.
Besides providing navigation services to the civil and military, GPS has a number of purely military applications as well. GPS serve as nuclear detonation detectors. Foot soldiers operating against the adversary equipped with GPS receivers give them their exact location which can be transmitted to friendly aerial and artillery raids to prevent fratricide.
The precise enemy location can also be communicated to the aerial drones and manned aerial strike platforms for precision raids. During patrol movements of troops and in the search and rescue missions of downed aircrew, GPS inputs play a key role.
GPS data are also used for the final guidance of PGMs particularly in the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) smart bombs. Prior to launch, the bomb’s computer is in sync with navigation systems onboard the aircraft. During this period the bomb’s Inertial Navigation system is tested against the aircraft’s navigation systems to be sure it is tracking accurately. Airborne computers also check the status of the bomb’s batteries and other systems.
Any failures will disable the bomb, requiring the crew to replace it with another unit. Once the bomb is launched it takes about 30 seconds for the Global Position System to get a fix on its exact location. From there, the GPS, Inertial Measurement Unit and the onboard computer send signals to bomb’s three movable fins to make any necessary adjustment to guide the bomb to its target.
GPS was widely used globally for both civilian and military purposed, free of cost. The selective denial option of the USA compelled other nations to develop their own navigation satellite systems. Russia came up with Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS) aka Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System Russia.
The work on GLONASS started in 1976 and the constellation was completed in 1995 but soon afterwards there was a decline in capacity. Restoration work began in earnest in 2001 and by 2010 GLONASS had achieved 100% coverage of the Russian territory and in October 2011, the full orbital constellation of 24 satellites was restored, enabling full global coverage. The GLONASS satellites’ designs have undergone several upgrades, with the latest version being GLONASS-K2, scheduled to enter service in 2019.
Similar to the GPS, GLONASS is capable of providing high-precision position fixes and/or timing references on a continuous worldwide basis. The system consists of 24, satellites orbiting around 19,000 KMs AMSL at 64.8 degrees north of the equator and each satellite has its own frequency but a common code. GPS satellites, on the other hand, use the same frequency but different codes. While GPS has greater accuracy because its code chipping is double that of GLONASS, the latter has better coverage at northern latitudes.
Europe decided to join the navigation satellite club. Codenamed Galileo, the first test satellites was launched in 2005 and as of July 2018, 26 of the planned 30 active satellites are in orbit. The system is expected to reach full operational capability by 2019-20. The system function is very similar to the GPS and GLONASS and it claims an accuracy of less than a metre.
China decided not to be left behind in the navigation satellite race. First initiated in 1994, christened as BeiDou the Chinese satellite navigation initially system comprises two separate satellite constellations. BeiDou-1 consisted of three satellites which since 2000 offered limited coverage and navigation services mainly over China and neighbouring regions. BeiDou-1 was decommissioned in 2012.
The second generation BeiDou-2 aka COMPASS with a constellation of 10 satellites with a free service accuracy of 10 metres and restricted military accuracy of 10 centimetres began offering services to customers in the Asia-Pacific region. In addition to providing users with location and time information, BeiDou also allows them to communicate with other users through text messages
In December 2015 China started to build up the third generation BeiDou-3 with 16 satellites with plans to enhance the number to 30. The accuracy of the system is planned to eventually be reduced from the current five metres to within centimetres. BeiDou-3 with new global constellations is expected to become operational by 2020.
Communication / artificial satellites
Communication satellites are wireless communication devices in Earth’s orbit that use transponders to send and receive data from Earth. They are primarily used to redirect communication data from one Earth-bound communication station to another station. The data is usually sent via large satellite dishes.
Artificial satellites serve a number of useful purposes. The Hubble Telescope, the International Space Stations and the Russian Mir Space Station help scientists explore space in new and exciting ways while communication satellites help us communicate with people the world over.
About 2000 artificial satellites presently orbit the earth relaying analogue and digital signals, carrying voice, video and data to and from one or many locations worldwide. They have immense commercial value particularly, in the telecommunication, news and sports broadcasting arenas. Many of them serve a dual purpose and have both military and non-military applications.
Reconnaissance or intelligence satellites also known as spy satellites that can possess both communication and imagery capability and are principally in use by the military for intelligence operations. Spy satellites are robotic observational platforms that orbit Earth to image its surface and record radio signals for military and political purposes (Larry Gilmour-2004). Three geosynchronous (35,066 Kms AMSL) spy satellites can keep the entire world in view on a 24/7 basis. A network of lower altitude satellites in polar orbit in combination can achieve similar results.
Satellites employed for Signal Intelligence (SIGINT) can operate at three levels: Communication Intelligence (COMINT), Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) and Telemetry Intelligence (TELINT).
TELINT can help detect missile launches and even monitor their flight profile/path. Space-Based Infrared Satellite System (SBIRS) are replacing the earlier Defence Support Program (DSP) early warning satellites. Radar satellites in orbit can map the earth and track ships using radar and similar to the SBIRS, overcome the night and cloudy conditions. Radar satellites are principally used to detect enemy’s missiles launches and tracking their flight path in the air.
The Chinese GAOFEN-4, a geostationary satellite is currently the most powerful geo space reconnaissance satellite with a resolution of less than 50 metres in colour and 400 metres thermal imaging. The satellite’s primary goal is to provide near real-time observations for disaster prevention and relief, climate change monitoring, geographical mapping, environmental and resource surveying as well as precision agriculture support.
Other nation states have satellites of similar capability which have both non-military and military applications. Indian RISAT-2 is a radar imaging satellite used by the Indian Air Force for radar reconnaissance. It was built by Israel Aerospace. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has to date launched 20 satellites into space that include 3 indigenously built ones. Pakistan, on the other hand, has launched 6 satellites that include two reconnaissance versions.
Satellite based aerial reconnaissance for nation states who have access to this facility have to a large extent replaced the conventional specialist reconnaissance aerial platforms. Photographs taken by a U-2 spy plane of the USAF had provided concrete proof of the presence of Russian nuclear missiles in Cuba during the 1962 Cuban Missile crisis while a US imagery satellite in 2011 was used to spy on the Abbottabad enclave where Osama bin Laden was suspected of hiding. For very detailed pictures, however, stealthy aircraft and/or drones mounted with very high-resolution cameras still have an operational role
For Pakistan, which to date does not have continuous satellite photography coverage of the region, specifically where it is engaged with non-state actors, aerial platforms would still be the best option for both tactical aerial recce and battle damage assessment.
Militarisation versus Weaponisation of Space
While militarisation of space is defined as non-lethal employment of space-based assets for military purposes, weaponisation refers to their having a lethal (destructive) capacity. Many consider terrestrial weapons like ICBMs that are ground-based but transit through space before reaching their designated target on earth a part of space weapons hence fall in the weaponisation category. Similarly, a defensive mechanism launched from space to counter ICBMs would also be considered as the weaponisation of space.
Pedants would argue that militarisation of space should include both lethal and non-lethal employment of space by the military, and weaponisation is but a subset of militarisation. However, as commonly understood by scholars in the academic circles, non-lethal and lethal use of space by the military differentiates militarisation from weaponisation.
Spy satellites are the flag bearers of space militarisation and their various functions have been briefly covered. In 2007 China is reported to have conducted an anti-satellite missile test where a Chinese weather satellite was destroyed in space by a kinetic kill vehicle launched from a ground-based satellite launch centre.
It was the first known satellite intercept since 1985 when the United States had conducted a similar anti-missile test using an ASM-135 ASAT to destroy the P78-1 satellite. According to the assessment of the US intelligence community, both Russia and China continue to pursue anti-satellite weapons knowing that, if successfully employed, these could undermine U.S. military capabilities. That the United States must have covertly developed similar systems is almost a given.
Besides the anti-satellite weapons whether based on Earth or in space, there are no other known weapons that have been deployed in space so far. Research and development in space weapons, however, are continuing at a rapid pace. Space-based lasers (SBLs), Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT), High Altitude Nuclear Detonation, Electro-Magnetic Rail Guns and Rods from God (brilliant space weapons that would fire 20 feet long orbital tungsten or uranium rods from space which after penetrating the earth’s atmosphere would accelerate using the force of gravity to attack terrestrial targets at speeds higher than 10, 0000 km per hour), are some of the exotic space weapons currently under research and development.
International space law (outer space treaty)
International Space Law is a body of laws governing space-related activities. Much like general international law, it comprises a variety of international agreements, treaties, conventions, and United Nations General Assembly resolutions as well as rules and regulations of international organizations (UNOOSA).
The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on principles governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of Outer Space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies is based on a set of legal principles the General Assembly of UN had accepted in 1962. It is a ‘treaty that forms the basis of international space law founded on principles governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies’.
The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of February 2019, 108 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 23 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification (UNOOSA).
The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise station them in outer space. It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military manoeuvres, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications
The Outer Space Treaty does not ban military activities or conventional weapons within space. However, it does state that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the States. While the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit and thus some highly destructive attack strategies such as kinetic bombardment are still potentially allowable
The treaty explicitly forbids any government to claim a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet. Article II of the treaty states that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.” However, the State that launches a space object retains jurisdiction and control over that object. The State is also liable for damages caused by its space object.
Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that “the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty” and that States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.
As a result of discussions arising from Project West Ford in 1963, a consultation clause was included in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: “A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.”
- The Rescue Agreement of 1968.
- The Space Liability Convention of 1972.
- The Registration Convention of 1976.
- The Moon Treaty of 1979 was proposed after the Outer Space Treaty but failed to be ratified by any major space-faring nation such as those capable of space flight.
- The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) oversees these treaties and other questions of space jurisdiction.
Space law addresses a variety of matters, such as, for example, the preservation of the space and Earth environment, liability for damages caused by space objects, the settlement of disputes, the rescue of astronauts, the sharing of information about potential dangers in outer space, the use of space-related technologies, and international cooperation. A number of fundamental principles guide the conduct of space activities, including the notion of space as the province of all humankind, the freedom of exploration and use of outer space by all states without discrimination, and the principle of non-appropriation of outer space.
The office provides information and advice, upon request, to governments, non-governmental organizations and the general public on space law in order to promote understanding, acceptance and implementation of the international space law agreements concluded under United Nations auspices.
Kelly Dickerson, writing for the Tech Insider on January 15, 2016, has come up for the layperson the following 11 laws derived from the Space Law, which according to her are ‘laws what keep space from becoming the wild west’.
1.Space is common ground and everyone is allowed to explore it.
2. But anyone exploring space has to do it peacefully.
3. That means no military bases.
4. And it is not just military basis no country can claim any land in space.
5. The Moon agreement elaborates on the idea that no country can own any celestial object.
6. Anything that launches into space has to be registered.
7. If there’s a spaceship crash, the state is held responsible for the damage.
8. In fact, people were so worried about damages from space exploration, that they created a whole separate liability treaty.
9. No one is supposed to contaminate space.
10. The “Rescue Agreement.”
11. US citizens can now harvest minerals from asteroids.
References
1.Satellite, spy, by Larry Gilman, Encyclopaedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security.
2. Space Laws Treaties and Principles, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA).
3. ICRC Space Law revisited: The militarization of outer space.
4. Weaponisation and Militarisation of Space by PN Tripathi.
5. Space War: The Militarization and Weaponization of Space by Angela White.
Note: Many aspects of the Space Laws have been produced verbatim to avoid any misconception.
CENTRE FOR AEROSPACE POWER STUDIES PUBLICATIONS
No. Title
P-1 Air Commodore (R) Jamal Hussain, Ownership of Air Power Assets. October 2001.
P-2 Air Cdre (R) Jamal Hussain, Air Power Equation in the Middle East, November 2001.
P-3 Air Cdre (R) Jamal Hussain, Role of Pakistan Aeronautical Complex in PAF’s Struggle Towards Self Reliance, November 2001.
P-4 Air Cdre (R) Jamal Hussain, Evolution of Air Power, December 2001.
P-5 Air Cdre (R) Jamal Hussain, Excellence in Air Combat: PAF’s Forte, January 2002.
P-6 Group Captain (R) Shaheen Mazhar, Nuclear Weapons: Basic Fundamentals, January 2002.
P-7 Air Cdre (R) Nasir M Butt, Implications of Indian Airborne Early Warning Capability for Pakistan’s Armed Forces, February 2002.
P-8 Group Captain (R) Shaheen Mazhar, Nuclear Weapons: Outputs and Effects, March 2002.
P-9 Air Cdre (R) Jamal Hussain, PAF versus IAF, April, 2002.
P-10 Group Captain (R) Shaheen Mazhar, Nuclear Weapons: Outputs and Effects, April 2002.
P-11 Air Commodore (R) Jamal Hussain, Doctrine: Its Definition and Purpose, May 2002.